Why was this argument so persuasive? Why was the existence of a great plurality of gnostikoi a line of attack shared by pagan detractors and Christian reformers alike? Part of the answer might lie in the age in which Celsus and Irenaeus wrote. Internal evidence from what we know of Celsus's treatise show that he wrote at a time when Christianity was being actively persecuted and when there seems to have been more than one emperor. This would point to either Marcus Aurelius with Lucius Verus (161-9), or the aftermath of the revolt of Avidius Cassius (175 - 180) when Aurelius's son young son was actively being groomed to replacing his ailing father on the throne. Henry Chadwick reviewed the evidence and preferred the latter period.
There is little doubt about the period Irenaeus was active - the rule of Commodus - and the city from which both men wrote is undoubtedly also the same - Rome. Irenaeus makes explicit mention of a great number of Catholics serving in the court of Commodus and the apparent resentment of at least some of the traditional gnostikoi for their influence over the Emperor apparently through their association with his beloved concubine Marcia Aurelia Ceionia Demetrias. Yet there is another specifically Roman 'thing' which connects Celsus to Irenaeus - a historical chronicle called the υπομνηματα and certainly written in Rome in the year 147 CE.
There is an interesting passage which Eusebius the author of the fourth century History of the Church thankfully cites from the second century υπομνηματα. It apparently came from a letter attached to the front of the book purporting to be from the same author written over a generation later. During a discussion of the list of bishops of Jerusalem the author mentions a certain candidate who was overlooked for the episcopal chair who went on to become a heretic. A list of heretical schools including "Simon, from whom came the Simonians" as well the "Μαρκιανισταί, and Carpocratians ... "each introduced privately and separately his own peculiar opinion. From them came false Christs, false prophets, false apostles, who divided the unity of the Church by corrupt doctrines uttered against God and against his Christ.”
It is impossible not to begin to suspect that Celsus's testimony is somehow connected with this letter as both documents must have been written at the same time in the same city reporting on the same Christian sects in contemporary Rome and sharing the very same anti-gnostic polemic just mentioned. The unfortunate part of course is that again our information about Celsus's original work comes from a hostile and ultimately fragmentary source. But this much is clear - Celsus's reference to 'Simonians,' the 'Carpocratians' and the 'Marcionites' in the context of a discussion which appears - on the surface at least - to be of very similar nature from what appears in the υπομνηματα.
Celsus begins his discussion of the contemporary disputes of Christian sects at Rome by rhetorically accepting the gnostic view that Jesus was an angel. All of this serves as a set up for his next argument that reported to us by our hostile Christian witness that:
"the Jews accordingly, and these [Christians] have the same God" and as if advancing a proposition which would not be conceded, he proceeds to make the following assertion: "It is certain, indeed, that the members of the great Church admit this, and adopt as true the accounts regarding the creation of the world which are current among the Jews, viz., concerning the six days and the seventh" on which ... as Celsus says (who does not abide by the letter of the history, and who does not understand its meaning), God "rested," [ἀναπαυσάμενος] - a term which is not found in the record. With respect, however, to the creation of the world, and the "rest" [σαββατισμοῦ] which is reserved after it for the people of God," the subject is extensive, and mystical, and profound, and difficult of explanation.
This is a very important passage and one which gets typically glossed over by studies of the period. In yet another remarkable turn of events Celsus, who is generally described to be an 'anti-Christian' pagan writer, demonstrates quite clearly that he is not so hostile against the tradition associated with the so-called 'great Church' (μεγάλης ἐκκλησίας) - i.e. the tradition our Christian source identifies with the surviving orthodoxy. Indeed Irenaeus while citing the very same source identifies his own tradition with "the very great, the very ancient, [maximae et antiquissimae] and universally known Church founded and organized at Rome, by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops. For it is a matter of necessity that every Church should agree with this Church, on account of its pre- eminent authority, that is, the faithful everywhere, inasmuch as the apostolical tradition has been preserved continuously by those [faithful men] who exist everywhere."
Celsus and Irenaeus are clearly drawing from the same document and more importantly their shared anti-gnostic polemic is undoubtedly appropriated from this same υπομνηματα. Both Irenaeus and Celsus use this text to argue that Christianity can only be accepted as a tolerated religious tradition if it goes back to its Jewish religious roots. The self-described 'gnostikoi' who think they stand above the sacred laws owing to their communion with some super-celestial source must be officially condemned and the religion as a whole be brought 'back to earth' so to speak and its antinomian tendencies extirpated.
That Celsus is citing this same υπομνηματα known to Irenaeus and later Church Fathers is clear when we follow the preservation of his original argument through the sections which follow in the third century Christian apologia. Celsus again emphasizes that all Christians "give the same account [logos] as do the Jews, and deduce the same genealogy from him as they do" - highlighting the tendency of Jews to fight against one another. This is typified by the shared interest of Christians in the same descent into Egypt as [the Jews], and of their return thence" described by Celsus as a 'flight.'
Celsus again reinforces his knowledge of the υπομνηματα in a statement which apparently followed here - i.e. "after the above remarks he proceeds as follows: "Let no one suppose that I am ignorant that some of them will concede that their God is the same as that of the Jews, while others will maintain that he is a different one, to whom the latter is in opposition, and that it was from the former that the Son came" and then we hear that Celsus clearly "imagines that the existence of numerous heresies among the Christians is a ground of accusation against Christianity."
This is unmistakably the very point at which Celsus cites directly or perhaps paraphrases loosely the contents of the original υπομνηματα which we can only glean the most general references from our surviving Christian source. I will cite all of the references here in full so that we can go on to prove - with absolutely certainty that Celsus had the υπομνηματα in front of him. Our third century Christian source notes in order that:
Let it be admitted, then, that there are amongst us some who deny that our God is the same as that of the Jews ... And let it be admitted also, that there is a third class who call certain persons "carnal," and others "spiritual," ... And let it be admitted further, that there are some who give themselves out as Gnostics, in the same way as those Epicureans who call themselves philosophers: yet neither will they who annihilate the doctrine of providence be deemed true philosophers, nor those true Christians who introduce monstrous inventions, which are disapproved of by those who are the disciples of Jesus.
Let it be admitted, moreover, that there are some who accept Jesus, and who boast on that account of being Christians, and yet would regulate their lives, like the Jewish multitude, in accordance with the Jewish law ... [and] who either acknowledge with us that Jesus was born of a virgin, or deny this, and maintain that He was begotten like other human beings,--what does that avail by way of charge against such as belong to the Church, and whom Celsus has styled "those of the multitude?"
He adds, also, that certain of the Christians are believers in the Sibyl, having probably misunderstood some who blamed such as believed in the existence of a prophetic Sibyl, and termed those who held this belief Sibyllists [Σιβυλλιστάς].
He next pours down Upon us a heap of names, saying that he knows of the existence of certain Simonians who worship Helene, or Helenus, as their teacher, and are called Helenians ... But neither Celsus nor Simon could comprehend how Jesus, like a good husbandman of the word of God, was able to sow the greater part of Greece, and of barbarian lands, with His doctrine, and to fill these countries with words which transform the soul from all that is evil, and bring it back to the Creator of all things.
Celsus knows, moreover, certain Marcellians, so called from Marcellina, and Harpocratians from Salome, and others who derive their name from Mariamme, and others again from Martha. We, however, who from a love of learning examine to the utmost of our ability not only the contents of Scripture, and the differences to which they give rise, but have also, from love to the truth, investigated as far as we could the opinions of philosophers, have never at any time met with these sects. He makes mention also of the Marcionites, whose leader was Marcion.
In the next place, that he may have the appearance of knowing still more than he has yet mentioned, he says, agreeably to his usual custom, that there are others "who have wickedly invented some being as their teacher and demon, and who wallow about in a great darkness, more unholy and accursed than that of the companions of the Egyptian Antinous."
... "Moreover," he continues, "these persons utter against one another dreadful blasphemies, saying all manner of things shameful to be spoken; nor will they yield in the slightest point for the sake of harmony, hating each other with a perfect hatred." Now, in answer to this, we have already said that in philosophy and medicine sects are to be found warring against sects ... and we would not utter "all manner of things shameful to be spoken" against those who have adopted different opinions from ours, but, if possible, use every exertion to raise them to a better condition through adherence to the Creator alone ... [and] would not regard with hatred the corrupters of Christianity, nor term those who had fallen into error Circes and flattering deceivers.
Celsus appears to me to have misunderstood the statement of the apostle [viz. 1 Tim 4:2] and to have misunderstood also those who employed these declarations of the apostle against such as had corrupted the doctrines of Christianity. And it is owing to this cause that Celsus has said that "certain among the Christians are called 'cauterized in the ears" and also that some are termed "enigmas,"--a term which we have never met. The expression "stumbling-block" is, indeed, of frequent occurrence in these writings ... but neither we, nor, I imagine, any other, whether Christian or heretic, know of any who are styled Sirens, who betray and deceive, and stop their ears, and change into swine those whom they delude. [Origen Against Celsus 5.61 - 64]
It will be argued here for the first time that Celsus's arguments were drawn from the now lost υπομνηματα dated to the very period he was active. Irenaeus also knew and cited from this text as did later Church Fathers and - it shall be argued - that with this discovery we have effectively uncovered a missing link which ties the development of the so-called 'great Church to an officially sanctioned Christian tradition, incubated and coddled by Roman authorities to effectively replace the original gnostikoi of Alexandria.
Early in the last century Hugh Jackson Lawlor developed a convincing argument that a well known fourth century Church Father Epiphanius of Salamis was actually bypassing Irenaeus's description of the so-called Carpocratian sect and actually getting his information from our υπομνηματα. Now when we compare Celsus's citation of material common to Irenaeus and Epiphanius we see that his use of the υπομνηματα was actually earlier than the rest. We see for instance in our side by side comparison of sources regarding the heretics who:
... deny that our God is the same as that of the Jews
Carpocrates says in his turn that there is one first principle on high, and he introduces an unknowable, unnameable Father of all, like the others. But he says that the world, and everything in the world, were produced by angels far inferior to the unknowable Father [Epiphanius Panarion 27.2.1]
... give themselves out as Gnostics
During Anicetus's episcopate then, as I said, Marcellina appeared at Rome spewing forth the corruptions of Carpocrates teachings, and destroyed many there of her corruption of them. And that made the beginning of the so-called Gnostics. [Epiphanius Panarion 1.27.6.8]
... boast that they are Christians and would regulate their lives, like the Jewish multitude, in accordance with the Jewish law
And what is more, the souls like his
[the Roman Church is divided into those] who either acknowledge with us that Jesus was born of a virgin, or deny this, and maintain that He was begotten like other human beings
But these people will be shamed again, from their other words as well. For if Jesus is not the offspring of a virgin, Mary, but of Joseph's seed and the same Mary, and yet Jesus is saved, then the persons whose offspring he is will also be saved. And if Mary and Joseph are of the demiurge, then they have said that the demiurge is
or deny this, and maintain that He was begotten like other human beings
But he says that Jesus our Lord is begotten of Joseph, just as all men were generated from a man's seed and a woman. He is like anyone else, but is different in life — in prudence, virtue and a life of righteousness. Because he received a more vigorous soul than other men's, and he remembered what it had seen on high when it was on the unknowable Father's carousel, powers were sent to his soul by the Father so that it would be able to recall what it had seen and gain power to escape the angels who made the world by progressing through every act there is and everything man can do, even strange, unlawful deeds done in secret —and so this same soul of Jesus, once freed by all he acts, could ascend to the same unknowable Father who had sent it the powers from above in order that it could win through to him on on high by progressing through all the acts and being released. [Epiphanius Panarion 1.27.2]
He next pours down upon us a heap of names, saying that he knows of the existence of certain Simonians who worship Helene, or Helenus, as their teacher, and are called Helenians, certain Marcellians, so called from Marcellina, and Harpocratians from Salome, and others who derive their name from Mariamme, and others again from Martha. He makes mention also of the Marcionites.
... among the people, like Simon from whom came the Simonians ... and Μαρκιανισταί and Carpocratians [Eusebius citing directly from the υπομνηματα AH 4.22.2]
I have now heard in some connection of a dupe of theirs, a Marcellina, who corrupted many people in the time of Anicetus, Bishop of Rome, successor of Pius and the bishops before him [Epiphanius Panarion 1.27.6]
... who have wickedly invented some being as their teacher and demon, and who wallow about in a great darkness, more unholy and accursed than that of the companions of the Egyptian Antinous.
The members of this unlawful school put all sorts of horrid, pernicious deeds into practice. They have thought up magic devices and invented various incantations—love charms and spells—for every purpose. What is more, they summon familiar spirits too, in order to
The plain fact is that these people perform everything unspeakable and unlawful, which is not right to mention, and every kind of homosexual act and carnal intercourse with women, with every member of the body. [Epiphanius Panarion 1.27.4]
Moreover, these persons utter against one another dreadful blasphemies, saying all manner of things shameful to be spoken; nor will they yield in the slightest point for the sake of harmony, hating each other with a perfect hatred.
regard with hatred the corrupters of Christianity, nor term those who had fallen into error Circes and flattering deceivers.
Celsus reflecting on the general tone of the υπομνηματα and its enmity toward supposedly 'fellow Christians.' As our Christian source notes to the first citation above "now, in answer to this, we have already said that in philosophy and medicine sects are to be found warring against sects ... and we would not utter "all manner of things shameful to be spoken" against those who have adopted different opinions from ours, but, if possible, use every exertion to raise them to a better condition through adherence to the Creator alone ..."
... are called cauterized in the ears
And this school of Carpocrates mark their dupes' right ear-lobes with a burning iron, or using a razor or needle. [Epiphanius Panarion 1.27.5]
... [called] "stumbling-block"
But they have been prepared by Satan, and put forward as a reproach and stumbling-block for God's church [Epiphanius Panarion 1.27.3]
... styled Sirens, who betray and deceive, and stop their ears, and change into swine those whom they delude.
They perform all magic, sorcery and idolatry, and say that this is the discharge of their debts in the body, so that they will not be charged any more or required to do anything else, and for this reason the soul will not be turned back after its departure and go on to another incarnation and transmigration.
Their literature is such that the intelligent reader will be astounded and shocked, and doubt that human beings can do such things — not only civilized people like ourselves, but even those who wild beasts and bestial, brutish men, and all but venture to behave like dogs and swine. For they say they absolutely must make every use of these things, or their souls may depart shy some work, and so be returned to bodies, to do all over again what they have not done. [Epiphanius Panarion 1.27.4,5]
As Celsus pulls away from his source he goes back to using the υπομνηματα to demonstrate how hostile the tone of contemporary Roman Christian dialogue really was:
And yet this man, who affects to know everything, uses such language as the following: "You may hear," he says, "all those who differ so widely, and who assail each other in their disputes with the most shameless language, uttering the words, 'The world is crucified to me, and I unto the world.'"
Celsus's real interest of course was to extract the admission that Christians identified themselves as gnostikoi from Plato and so 'stole all their ideas' from Plato. As our Christian source summarizes the contents of what follows in Celsus's work the discussion is so extensive he decides to devote an entire book to the argument of Christian appropriation of Plato:
He then continues: "Although they have no foundation for the doctrine, let us examine the system itself; and, in the first place, let us mention the corruptions which they have made through ignorance and misunderstanding, when in the discussion of elementary principles they express their opinions in the most absurd manner on things which they do not understand, such as the following." And then, to certain expressions which are continually in the mouths of the believers in Christianity, he opposes certain others from the writings of the philosophers, with the object of making it appear that the noble sentiments which Celsus supposes to be used by Christians have been expressed in better and clearer language by the philosophers, in order that he might drag away to the study of philosophy those who are caught by opinions which at once evidence their noble and religious character.
It is worth noting that the idea that the gnostikoi venerated Plato once again comes directly from the υπομνηματα:
They possess images like these in secret, and of certain philosophers besides — Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, and the rest — and also place other reliefs of Jesus with these philosophers. And having erected them, they worship them and celebrate heathen mysteries. For once they have set these images up, they then follow the customs of heathen; yet what are
Indeed if we look closely at Epiphanius's citation of the υπομνηματα it is clear that he is aware that this material was indeed cited in a hostile pagan work against Christianity for he writes:
But they have been prepared by Satan, and put forward as a reproach and stumbling-block for God's church For they have adopted the name of “Christian,” though Satan has arranged this so that the heathen will be scandalized by them and reject the benefit of God's holy church and its real message, because of their wickedness and their intolerable evil deeds— so that the heathen, observing the continual behavior of the evildoers themselves and supposing that the members of God's holy church are of the same kind, will refuse the hearing of God's real teaching, as I said, or even, seeing certain (of us)
I think it is impossible to argue that Celsus was not aware of the contents of the υπομνηματα known to Irenaeus, Eusebius and Epiphanius. He most certainly employed this text as his source for contemporary controversies in the Roman Church. It was moreover central to the purpose of a work as a whole. As we noted earlier both he and Irenaeus had a vested interest in demonizing the gnostikoi. The question of course is whether the υπομνηματα was established for the specific purpose of discrediting rival traditions to the newly emergent Roman Church.
